From 2494b9d8c92c6eb2d94869d887082c8cfd37020c Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Nic Boie <nic@webvolta.com>
Date: Thu, 30 Oct 2025 17:50:53 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 01/10] Deal with nil and encoding issues ruby-3

---
 lib/liquid/variable.rb | 7 +++++--
 1 file changed, 5 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-)

diff --git a/lib/liquid/variable.rb b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
index 5b686e2d3..27be2e088 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/variable.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
@@ -95,10 +95,13 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
       obj = render(context)
 
       if obj.is_a?(Array)
-        output << obj.join
+        output.to_s + obj.join
       elsif obj.nil?
       else
-        output << obj.to_s
+        obj = obj.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
+        output_str = output.to_s.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
+
+        output_str + obj
       end
 
       output

From 8e593c9cc1ee970744e45d86b2842195faabc4a2 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Nic Boie <nic@webvolta.com>
Date: Thu, 30 Oct 2025 18:30:01 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 02/10] another nil string

---
 lib/liquid/tag.rb | 1 +
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+)

diff --git a/lib/liquid/tag.rb b/lib/liquid/tag.rb
index ffd22868d..32e648ce7 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/tag.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/tag.rb
@@ -58,6 +58,7 @@ def disabled_error_message
     # of the `render_to_output_buffer` method will become the default and the `render`
     # method will be removed.
     def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
+      output = output&.to_s || ""
       output << render(context)
       output
     end

From 765b6f55c82f5601b742904b7f7518efd73ec9d9 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Nic Boie <nic@webvolta.com>
Date: Fri, 31 Oct 2025 13:19:07 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 03/10] Return to using buffer properly

---
 lib/liquid/tag.rb      |  1 -
 lib/liquid/variable.rb | 15 ++++++++++-----
 2 files changed, 10 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-)

diff --git a/lib/liquid/tag.rb b/lib/liquid/tag.rb
index 32e648ce7..ffd22868d 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/tag.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/tag.rb
@@ -58,7 +58,6 @@ def disabled_error_message
     # of the `render_to_output_buffer` method will become the default and the `render`
     # method will be removed.
     def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
-      output = output&.to_s || ""
       output << render(context)
       output
     end
diff --git a/lib/liquid/variable.rb b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
index 27be2e088..3f40ccc45 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/variable.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
@@ -94,14 +94,19 @@ def render(context)
     def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
       obj = render(context)
 
+
+      # This is to find spots where nil is being cast to "", which is a frozen string literal
+      # in the exact case of nil.to_s, and isn't mutable N.B.
+      if output.frozen?
+        raise LiquidError, "Cannot mutate frozen output buffer"
+      end
+
       if obj.is_a?(Array)
-        output.to_s + obj.join
+        output << obj.join
       elsif obj.nil?
       else
-        obj = obj.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
-        output_str = output.to_s.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
-
-        output_str + obj
+        obj_encoded = obj.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
+        output << obj_encoded
       end
 
       output

From 74ff12719da58e52fb3bc9c1c243b4318eb917b2 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Nic Boie <nic@webvolta.com>
Date: Fri, 31 Oct 2025 13:55:10 -0500
Subject: [PATCH 04/10] more encoding and nil fixes

---
 lib/liquid/block_body.rb |  4 +++-
 lib/liquid/tag.rb        |  7 ++++++-
 lib/liquid/variable.rb   | 10 ++++++----
 3 files changed, 15 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-)

diff --git a/lib/liquid/block_body.rb b/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
index 45be8b8af..47bb064b9 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
@@ -127,7 +127,9 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
 
         case node
         when String
-          output << node
+          output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
+          node_utf8 = node.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
+          output << node_utf8
         when Variable
           render_node(context, output, node)
         when Block
diff --git a/lib/liquid/tag.rb b/lib/liquid/tag.rb
index ffd22868d..c080fb594 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/tag.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/tag.rb
@@ -58,7 +58,12 @@ def disabled_error_message
     # of the `render_to_output_buffer` method will become the default and the `render`
     # method will be removed.
     def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
-      output << render(context)
+      rendered = render(context)
+      if output.nil?
+        output = rendered.to_s
+      else
+        output << rendered.to_s
+      end
       output
     end
 
diff --git a/lib/liquid/variable.rb b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
index 3f40ccc45..3c0183d79 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/variable.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
@@ -94,18 +94,20 @@ def render(context)
     def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
       obj = render(context)
 
-
-      # This is to find spots where nil is being cast to "", which is a frozen string literal
-      # in the exact case of nil.to_s, and isn't mutable N.B.
-      if output.frozen?
+      if output.nil?
+        output = +''
+      elsif output.frozen?
         raise LiquidError, "Cannot mutate frozen output buffer"
       end
 
       if obj.is_a?(Array)
         output << obj.join
       elsif obj.nil?
+        # do nothing
       else
         obj_encoded = obj.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
+        # Force output to UTF-8 encoding to match obj_encoded
+        output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
         output << obj_encoded
       end
 

From 728d91e85c0e25e5bba04bc2ad5d0422a4c975aa Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Nic Boie <nic@webvolta.com>
Date: Mon, 3 Nov 2025 14:48:45 -0600
Subject: [PATCH 05/10] Fixes to cast else to a string or empty string and
 return

---
 lib/liquid/variable.rb | 9 ++++++---
 1 file changed, 6 insertions(+), 3 deletions(-)

diff --git a/lib/liquid/variable.rb b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
index 3c0183d79..f82993040 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/variable.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
@@ -102,13 +102,16 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
 
       if obj.is_a?(Array)
         output << obj.join
+      elsif obj.kind_of?(Hash)
+        output << obj.to_s
       elsif obj.nil?
         # do nothing
-      else
-        obj_encoded = obj.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
-        # Force output to UTF-8 encoding to match obj_encoded
+      elsif obj.kind_of?(String)
         output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
+        obj_encoded = obj.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
         output << obj_encoded
+      else
+        output << obj.try(:to_s) || ""
       end
 
       output

From 4fa6d8eaa031373f99bdac8482eee1eb8ae88295 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Nic Boie <nic@webvolta.com>
Date: Mon, 10 Nov 2025 11:31:37 -0600
Subject: [PATCH 06/10] Changes for ruby mis-identifiying UTF-8 strings as
 binary

---
 lib/liquid/block_body.rb | 2 +-
 lib/liquid/variable.rb   | 2 +-
 2 files changed, 2 insertions(+), 2 deletions(-)

diff --git a/lib/liquid/block_body.rb b/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
index 47bb064b9..766444f6c 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
@@ -128,7 +128,7 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
         case node
         when String
           output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
-          node_utf8 = node.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
+          node_utf8 = node.force_encoding('UTF-8') if node.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
           output << node_utf8
         when Variable
           render_node(context, output, node)
diff --git a/lib/liquid/variable.rb b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
index f82993040..7c3a47c24 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/variable.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
         # do nothing
       elsif obj.kind_of?(String)
         output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
-        obj_encoded = obj.encode('UTF-8', invalid: :replace, undef: :replace, replace: '')
+        obj_encoded = obj.force_encoding('UTF-8') if obj.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
         output << obj_encoded
       else
         output << obj.try(:to_s) || ""

From ab88b92798d9eeca04a6c82db3cd4cd9168f0d87 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Nic Boie <nic@webvolta.com>
Date: Mon, 10 Nov 2025 14:59:34 -0600
Subject: [PATCH 07/10] remove utf-8 forced encoding to replicate error

---
 lib/liquid/block_body.rb | 7 ++++---
 lib/liquid/variable.rb   | 7 ++++---
 2 files changed, 8 insertions(+), 6 deletions(-)

diff --git a/lib/liquid/block_body.rb b/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
index 766444f6c..91eaf9a6e 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
@@ -127,9 +127,10 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
 
         case node
         when String
-          output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
-          node_utf8 = node.force_encoding('UTF-8') if node.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
-          output << node_utf8
+          # output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
+          # node_utf8 = node.force_encoding('UTF-8') if node.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
+          # output << node_utf8
+          output << node
         when Variable
           render_node(context, output, node)
         when Block
diff --git a/lib/liquid/variable.rb b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
index 7c3a47c24..86d1dd01d 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/variable.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
@@ -107,9 +107,10 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
       elsif obj.nil?
         # do nothing
       elsif obj.kind_of?(String)
-        output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
-        obj_encoded = obj.force_encoding('UTF-8') if obj.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
-        output << obj_encoded
+        # output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
+        # obj_encoded = obj.force_encoding('UTF-8') if obj.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
+        # output << obj_encoded
+        output << obj
       else
         output << obj.try(:to_s) || ""
       end

From e710bdfa77475b32eaf4cd7edeb54edf7f0ee853 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Nic Boie <nic@webvolta.com>
Date: Mon, 10 Nov 2025 15:13:17 -0600
Subject: [PATCH 08/10] remove unused UTF-8 forced encoding code

---
 lib/liquid/block_body.rb | 3 ---
 lib/liquid/variable.rb   | 3 ---
 2 files changed, 6 deletions(-)

diff --git a/lib/liquid/block_body.rb b/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
index 91eaf9a6e..45be8b8af 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
@@ -127,9 +127,6 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
 
         case node
         when String
-          # output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
-          # node_utf8 = node.force_encoding('UTF-8') if node.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
-          # output << node_utf8
           output << node
         when Variable
           render_node(context, output, node)
diff --git a/lib/liquid/variable.rb b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
index 86d1dd01d..82f5a72b3 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/variable.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
@@ -107,9 +107,6 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
       elsif obj.nil?
         # do nothing
       elsif obj.kind_of?(String)
-        # output.force_encoding('UTF-8') if output.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
-        # obj_encoded = obj.force_encoding('UTF-8') if obj.encoding != Encoding::UTF_8
-        # output << obj_encoded
         output << obj
       else
         output << obj.try(:to_s) || ""

From d5373583c74e94b6e3c4aba53f6c111e5a571d43 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Nic Boie <nic@webvolta.com>
Date: Mon, 24 Nov 2025 16:53:30 -0600
Subject: [PATCH 09/10] Force encoding on encoding error only for variables

---
 lib/liquid/variable.rb | 6 ++++++
 1 file changed, 6 insertions(+)

diff --git a/lib/liquid/variable.rb b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
index 82f5a72b3..c367bfb64 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/variable.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/variable.rb
@@ -113,6 +113,12 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
       end
 
       output
+    rescue Encoding::CompatibilityError => e
+      if obj.kind_of?(String)
+        output.force_encoding('UTF-8') << obj
+      else
+        raise e
+      end
     end
 
     def disabled?(_context)

From e3d180b0474195d9f1fa27e9553d9983233290cc Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Nic Boie <nic@webvolta.com>
Date: Fri, 5 Dec 2025 14:56:22 -0600
Subject: [PATCH 10/10] More encoding nonsense

---
 lib/liquid/block_body.rb | 2 +-
 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-)

diff --git a/lib/liquid/block_body.rb b/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
index 45be8b8af..b9d6a0ce5 100644
--- a/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
+++ b/lib/liquid/block_body.rb
@@ -127,7 +127,7 @@ def render_to_output_buffer(context, output)
 
         case node
         when String
-          output << node
+          output.force_encoding('UTF-8') << node.force_encoding('UTF-8')
         when Variable
           render_node(context, output, node)
         when Block