Fix empty image markup

Author: obuisard

website/docs-v6/payment-methods/payment_stripe.md

@@ -414,8 +414,6 @@ When Element Type is set to Card:
 
 **Frontend View**
 
-![]()
-
 ![](/img/8stripe-checkout-manual-embedded.webp)
 
 ### Embedded  -> Card Element -> Automatic