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Species-Tree Inference with SNP Data

A tutorial on the inference of species trees from SNP data based on quartets
By Michael Matschiner

Summary

Most methods for species-tree inference with the multi-species coalescent model use gene trees or gene sequences as input. In both cases it is assumed that within-gene recombination is absent and that therefore the entire gene has only a single true phylogeny. This assumption may often not be met, particularly when population sizes are large or speciation is frequent, or when the gene sequences used for inference are in fact concatenated sequences of exons that are distant to each other on the chromosome. In those cases, species-tree inference based on genes may potentially be affected by the same issues that affect concatenation methods more generally, leading to overconfidence in node support and unreliable tree inference. An approach that completely avoids these issues is species-tree inference based on single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), where single SNPs instead of genes are considered as phylogenetic markers, and thus each SNP is explicitely allowed have its own phylogenetic history. One tool that implements SNP-based phylogenetic inference is SVDQuartets (Chifman and Kubatko 2014), which estimates the topology of the species tree under the multi-species-coalescent model.

Table of contents

Outline

In this tutorial I am going to present how to quickly infer the topology of the species tree from SNP data with the multi-species-coalescent model implemented in the software SVDQuartets (Chifman and Kubatko 2014), and how to assess node support with bootstrapping. The SNP dataset will first be filtered with BCFtools (Li 2011).

Dataset

The SNP data used in this tutorial (and in some of the following tutorials) is part of a recently published genomic dataset for Lake Tanganyika cichlid fishes (Ronco et al. 2021). In this dataset, two individuals (a male and a female) of each cichlid species of Lake Tanganyika have been sequenced on the Illumina platform with a coverage around 10×, and read data of all sequenced individuals have been mapped against the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) genome assembly (Conte et al. 2017), which has been assembled at the chromosome level. Variant calling was then performed with the Genome Analysis Toolkit (GATK) (McKenna et al. 2010), and several filtering steps have been applied to remove low-quality genotypes and all indel variation. As in tutorial Whole-Genome Alignment, the dataset in this tutorial is limited to SNP variation mapped to a single chromosome of Nile tilapia, chromosome 5, to reduce computational demands. Here, this dataset includes the genotypes of a set of 28 individuals from 14 different cichlid species. Most of these species represent the group that has already been the focus of the tutorials Bayesian Species-Tree Inference and Whole-Genome Alignment, fishes of the genus Neolamprologus within the Lake Tanganyika tribe Lamprologini. Below is a list of all individuals and species included in the dataset of this tutorial.

Individual ID Species ID Species name Tribe
IZA1 astbur Astatotilapia burtoni Haplochromini
IZC5 astbur Astatotilapia burtoni Haplochromini
AUE7 altfas Altolamprologus fasciatus Lamprologini
AXD5 altfas Altolamprologus fasciatus Lamprologini
JBD5 telvit Telmatochromis vittatus Lamprologini
JBD6 telvit Telmatochromis vittatus Lamprologini
JUH9 neobri Neolamprologus brichardi Lamprologini
JUI1 neobri Neolamprologus brichardi Lamprologini
LJC9 neocan Neolamprologus cancellatus Lamprologini
LJD1 neocan Neolamprologus cancellatus Lamprologini
KHA7 neochi Neolamprologus chitamwebwai Lamprologini
KHA9 neochi Neolamprologus chitamwebwai Lamprologini
IVE8 neocra Neolamprologus crassus Lamprologini
IVF1 neocra Neolamprologus crassus Lamprologini
JWH1 neogra Neolamprologus gracilis Lamprologini
JWH2 neogra Neolamprologus gracilis Lamprologini
JWG8 neohel Neolamprologus helianthus Lamprologini
JWG9 neohel Neolamprologus helianthus Lamprologini
JWH3 neomar Neolamprologus marunguensis Lamprologini
JWH4 neomar Neolamprologus marunguensis Lamprologini
JWH5 neooli Neolamprologus olivaceous Lamprologini
JWH6 neooli Neolamprologus olivaceous Lamprologini
ISA6 neopul Neolamprologus pulcher Lamprologini
ISB3 neopul Neolamprologus pulcher Lamprologini
ISA8 neosav Neolamprologus savoryi Lamprologini
IYA4 neosav Neolamprologus savoryi Lamprologini
KFD2 neowal Neolamprologus walteri Lamprologini
KFD4 neowal Neolamprologus walteri Lamprologini

Note that one of these Neolamprologus species, Neolamprologus cancellatus ("neocan") is not accepted by some authors as it is presumed to be a "natural hybrid between Telmatochromis vittatus and another species" (Konings 2015), according to field observations.

Requirements

This tutorial requires FigTree to be installed. Details about the installation of this tool can be found in tutorial Bayesian Phylogenetic Inference.

The following tool is required additionally:

  • PAUP*: The software PAUP* is a general-utility program for phylogenetic inference into which the SVDQuartets method, allowing the inference of species trees from SNP data, has been implemented. PAUP* is available as a graphical user interface (GUI) version, which may be easier to use for those not familiar with the program yet, but cannot be used on Saga. If you prefer to use the GUI version of PAUP*, you would thus need to install it on your own computer, and you would need download the input file for PAUP* from Saga. Unfortunately, this GUI version does not run on MacOS 10.15 (Catalina) or newer, but on other systems, the program can be installed using the instructions and precompiled versions available on http://phylosolutions.com/paup-test/.

SNP filtering

The dataset of SNP variation for the above-listed 28 individuals of 14 Lake Tanganyika cichlid species is stored in compressed variant-call format (VCF) in file NC_031969.f5.sub1.vcf.gz. To identify the SNPs most suitable for phylogenetic analysis, we will filter the information from this file with the program BCFtools.

  • Add the file NC_031969.f5.sub1.vcf.gz to your current directory on Saga, either by copying it from /cluster/projects/nn9458k/phylogenomics/week2/data or by downloading it from GitHub, using one of the following two commands:

      cp /cluster/projects/nn9458k/phylogenomics/week2/data/NC_031969.f5.sub1.vcf.gz .

    or

      wget https://github.com/ForBioPhylogenomics/tutorials/raw/main/week2_data/NC_031969.f5.sub1.vcf.gz

  • As mentioned above, one of the species included in the dataset, Neolamprologus cancellatus, is presumed to be a hybrid species. As hybridization would represent a violation of the multi-species-coalescent model, we will here exclude the two individuals of this species ("LJC9" and "LJD1") from the dataset. To exclude the two individuals from the VCF file with BCFtools, we can use the following commands:

      module purge
  module load BCFtools/1.12-GCC-10.2.0
  srun --ntasks=1 --mem-per-cpu=1G --time=00:01:00 --account=nn9458k --pty bcftools view -s ^LJC9,LJD1 -O z -o NC_031969.f5.sub2.vcf.gz NC_031969.f5.sub1.vcf.gz

    In the above command, the option -s specifies a list of individual IDs to be included or excluded, and the ^ character at the beginning of this list specifies that the taxa should be excluded rather than included. In addition, -O z specifies that the output should be written in compressed VCF format, and -o specifies the name of the output file. All options of BCFtools are described in the BCFtools online manual, and you can quickly access the general help text of BCFtools or the more specific help text for its view command by typing only bcftools or bcftools view, respectively.

  • To learn a bit about the dataset, you could browse through the first lines of the VCF file with the following command (without srun):

      bcftools view NC_031969.f5.sub2.vcf.gz | less -S

    As shown in the next screenshot, this command should print the very first part of the header of the VCF file, marked by the double "#" symbol at the beginning of each line. You'll see that the very first line specifies the version of the VCF file format, that other lines beginning with "ALT", "FILTER", "FORMAT", and "INFO" describe the annotation of the records and genotypes, and that the lengths of various contigs are defined. Because all variation of this file was mapped to the Nile tilapia genome assembly, these "contigs" represent the Nile tilapia chromosomes.

    Terminal

  • If you scroll down a few lines, you'll find the information shown in the screenshot below. You should see that a single line begins with only one "#" symbol; this line specifies the content of each column in the table below it (note that the tab-delimited columns may appear shifted between this line and the lines below). Towards the right on that line, you'll see the first of the individual IDs ("IZA1", "IZC5", "AUE7",...), but the corresponding genotypes may not be visible yet in the lines below it because the fields with format information (the first of which begins with "AC=2;AF=0.004695;AN=36;BaseQRankSum=1.085;...") extend to the right end of the screen. These fields contain some information that we will use for filtering, including the total number of called alleles ("AN") and the total number of called non-reference alleles ("AC").

    Terminal

    Question 1: How far, approximately, is the spacing between SNPs? (see answer)

  • To see the genotype information for the first few SNPs, hit the right-arrow key a few times to scroll to the right. You should then see the information shown in the next screenshot. Note that the tab-delimited columns are shifted between lines; thus, genotypes that appear to be in one column are not usually from the same individual. Per SNP, individuals that are homozygous for the reference allele are marked with "0/0", individuals homozygous for the first alternative allele are marked with "1/1", and "0/1" indicates heterozygous alleles. As you'll see, the dataset contains a large proportion of missing data, marked by "./.".

    Terminal

    If you're not familiar with the VCF file format yet, you can find more information about it in the format specification.

  • Find out how many SNPs are included in total in the VCF file NC_031969.f5.sub2.vcf.gz. An easy way to do so is to run the following command:

      bcftools view -H NC_031969.f5.sub2.vcf.gz | wc -l

  • We will now generate a reduced version of the dataset that includes only the most suitable SNPs for phylogenetic analysis. This means that we exclude all sites at which no alternative alleles are called for any of the individuals ("AC==0"), all sites at which only alternative alleles are called ("AC==AN"), and sites at which the proportion of missing data is greater than 20% ("F_MISSING > 0.2"). At the same time, we will ensure that only bi-allelic SNPs are included in the reduced dataset by using the BCFtools options -m2 and -M2 which set both the minimum (-m) and maximum (-M) number of alleles to 2. Thus, use the following BCFtools command to write the reduced dataset to a new file named NC_031969.f5.sub3.vcf.gz:

      srun --ntasks=1 --mem-per-cpu=1G --time=00:01:00 --account=nn9458k --pty bcftools view -e 'AC==0 || AC==AN || F_MISSING > 0.2' -m2 -M2 -O z -o NC_031969.f5.sub3.vcf.gz NC_031969.f5.sub2.vcf.gz

  • Check once again the total number of SNPs included in file NC_031969.f5.sub3.vcf.gz.

    Question 2: How many SNPs were removed in the last step? (see answer)

  • As we've seen above, some SNPs in file NC_031969.f5.sub2.vcf.gz were too close to each other on the chromosome to be considered independent markers. Some of these might have been removed in the last filtering step. Nevertheless, to ensure that no SNPs are closer to each other than a minimum distance of 100 bp, we can use the prune function of BCFtools:

      srun --ntasks=1 --mem-per-cpu=1G --time=00:01:00 --account=nn9458k --pty bcftools +prune -w 100bp -n 1 -N 1st -o NC_031969.f5.sub4.vcf NC_031969.f5.sub3.vcf.gz

The filtered dataset in file NC_031969.f5.sub4.vcf should now contain 65,325 SNPs. Thus, a bit more than every second SNP have been removed in this last step.

Species-tree inference with SVDQuartets

SVDQuartets is a highly efficient tool to estimate the species-tree topology based on SNP data under the multi-species-coalescent model. It does so by calculating the single-value decomposition (SVD) score (Chifman and Kubatko 2014) for each possible four-species (quartet) topologies in the dataset, and by optimizing the overall tree topology to maximize these scores of quartets induced by the tree topology. The SVD score itself is calculated on the basis of a matrix of the genotype probabilities in a given quartet and on the dimensionality of this matrix (see Chifman and Kubatko 2014 for details). The great advantage of species-tree inference with SVDQuartets is the very short analysis time required even for datasets of millions of SNPs. Moreover, simulations have shown that species-tree SVDQuartets is relatively robust to horizontal gene flow even though this process violates the multi-species coalescent model used for the inference (Long and Kubatko 2018). However, a drawback of species-tree inference with SVDQuartets is that only the topology and no branch lengths can be inferred.

The dataset is now sufficiently filtered for analysis with SVDQuartets. However, as SVDQuartets is implemented in PAUP* and PAUP* does not accept VCF files as input, we'll need to convert file NC_031969.f5.sub4.vcf into Nexus format. We can use the Ruby script convert_vcf_to_nexus.rb.

  • Add the script convert_vcf_to_nexus.rb to your current directory on Saga, either by copying it from /cluster/projects/nn9458k/phylogenomics/week2/src or by downloading it from GitHub, using one of the following two commands:

      cp /cluster/projects/nn9458k/phylogenomics/week2/src/convert_vcf_to_nexus.rb .

    or

      wget https://raw.githubusercontent.com/ForBioPhylogenomics/tutorials/main/week2_src/convert_vcf_to_nexus.rb

  • Use the script to convert the SNP dataset of NC_031969.f5.sub4.vcf to Nexus format:

      module purge
  module load Ruby/2.7.2-GCCcore-9.3.0
  srun --ntasks=1 --mem-per-cpu=1G --time=00:01:00 --account=nn9458k --pty ruby convert_vcf_to_nexus.rb NC_031969.f5.sub4.vcf NC_031969.f5.sub4.nex

  • Have a look at the Nexus file NC_031969.f5.sub4.nex, for example using less -S:

      less -S NC_031969.f5.sub4.nex

    Note that heterozygous sites have been coded with IUPAC ambiguity codes, so that for example a "C/T" allele has been replace with the letter "Y". While many phylogenetic algorithms can not deal with this ambiguity information, SVDQuartets will automatically recognize that both alleles are present heterozygously in the individual and will consider both in its calculations of the SVD score.

  • If you have the PAUP* GUI installed on your own computer, you can use the following steps to run a first SVDQuartets analysis (if not, scroll down to the next black bullet point):

    • Download file NC_031969.f5.sub4.nex from Saga to your own computer using scp.

    • Open the Nexus file NC_031969.f5.sub4.nex in PAUP*, and make sure that the option "Execute" is set in the opening dialog, as shown in the next screenshot.

      PAUP\*

    • To specify the two individuals of Astatotilapia burtoni ("IZA1" and "IZC5") as the outgroup, click on "Define Outgroup..." in PAUP*'s "Data" menu, as shown below.

      PAUP\*

    • Then, move the "IZA1" and "IZC5" into the field for the outgroup taxa with the "To Outgroup →" button, as shown in the next screenshot, and click "OK".

      PAUP\*

    • We are first going to run SVDQuartets with all individuals as separate taxa to verify that these in fact appear monophyletic before we group all individuals per species in a second analysis. To select the settings for this first SVDQuartets analysis, click on "SVDQuartets..." in PAUP*'s "Analysis" menu, as shown in the next screenshot.

      PAUP\*

    • In the pop-up window for the SVDQuartets settings, choose "Evaluate all possible quartets" in the field at the top for "Quartet evaluation". With a larger dataset and limited computational resources, one might want to evaluate only a certain subset instead, but with the compraratively small dataset used in our analysis, evaluating all quartets will be very fast, so there is no reason to only analyze a subset. You can leave the default values for for all other options. Make sure that "Handling of ambiguities" is set to "Distribute". This specifies that the IUPAC ambiguity code for heterozygous sites will be correctly interpreted as both alleles being present in the individual, rather than uncertainty about any of the alleles. The pop-up window should then look as in the next screenshot. Click "OK" if it does.

      PAUP\*

      This analysis should finish within a few seconds.

    • Have a look at the output in the PAUP* screen, where the tree estimated by SVDQuartets should now be shown.

  • If you are using the command-line version of PAUP* on Saga, use these commands for the first SVDQuartets analysis:

    • Load the PAUP* module.

        module load PAUP/4.0a168-centos64

    • Start PAUP* interactively on the command line:

        srun --ntasks=1 --mem-per-cpu=1G --time=00:30:00 --account=nn9458k --pty paup

    • In the interactive PAUP* session, load the Nexus file NC_031969.f5.sub4.nex using the PAUP* command execute:

        execute NC_031969.f5.sub4.nex

    • To specify the two individuals of Astatotilapia burtoni ("IZA1" and "IZC5") as the outgroup, we first need to find out which numbers PAUP* is using for these two individuals in its taxon list. To get these numbers, use PAUP*s tstatus command with option full:

        tstatus full

      As you'll see, the numbers used for individuals "IZA1" and "IZC5" are "1" and "2", respectively.

    • Define the individuals "IZA1" and "IZC5" as the outgroup using PAUP*s outgroup command:

        outgroup 1 2

    • Then, simply start the SVDQuartets analysis with PAUP*'s svdQuartets command (the default settings correspond exactly to those used above for the analysis with the GUI version):

        svdQuartets

      This analysis should only take a few seconds, and then output the tree on the screen.

    • Quit the interactive PAUP* session with quit.

    Question 3: Do the two individuals of each species cluster monophyletically? Use the table in the Dataset section to find out. (see answer)

  • In a second analysis with SVDQuartets, we are going to specify which individuals come from the same species, so that SVDQuartets can use this information to estimate a tree with species as taxa. To specify this information, write the following text to a file named taxpartitions.txt (either on your own computer or on Saga, depending on whether you use the PAUP* GUI or its command-line version):

      BEGIN SETS;
  	TAXPARTITION SPECIES =
  		astbur: 1-2,
  		altfas: 3-4,
  		telvit: 5-6,
  		neobri: 7-8,
  		neochi: 9-10,
  		neocra: 11-12,
  		neogra: 13-14,
  		neohel: 15-16,
  		neomar: 17-18,
  		neooli: 19-20,
  		neopul: 21-22,
  		neosav: 23-24,
  		neowal: 25-26;
  END;

    The above text block uses the "Sets" command of the very flexible Nexus format (a complete format reference can be found in Maddison et al. 1997). It specifies that the first two sequences in the Nexus file correspond to species "astbur", the next two sequences correspond to species "altfas" and so on.

  • The alignment file NC_031969.f5.sub4.nex and the file taxpartitions.txt that was written in the last step then need to be combined into a single file in Nexus format.

    • If you do this on your own computer, just open both files in a text editor and copy-paste the content of file taxpartitions.txt at the end of file NC_031969.f5.sub4.nex; then save this as a new file named NC_031969.f5.sub4.parts.nex.

    • If you do this on Saga, use cat to combine the two files:

        cat NC_031969.f5.sub4.nex taxpartitions.txt > NC_031969.f5.sub4.parts.nex

  • If you are using the PAUP* GUI, take the following steps for the second SVDQuartets analysis:

    • Open the new Nexus file NC_031969.f5.sub4.parts.nex again in PAUP* and make sure that "Execute" is selected in the opening dialog. You will be asked if you want to reset the active datafile. Click "Yes" to do so.

    • Once again define the individuals of Astatotilapia burtoni ("IZA1" and "IZC5") as the outgroup with "Define Outgroup..." in the "Data" menu.

    • Click "SVDQuartets..." again in the "Analysis" menu. In the settings for the SVDQuartets analysis, again use "Evaluate all possible quartets" and make sure that "Distribute" is selected for "Handling of ambiguities". Unlike in the first analysis, now assign the individuals to species by setting a tick in the last checkbox next to "Assign tips to species using taxon partition". The "SPECIES" taxon partition should already be selected in the drop-down menu to the right of it; this is the taxon set definition that we had added in Nexus format to the end of the alignment file. To also perform a bootstrapping analysis this time to assess node support for the species tree, set a tick in the checkbox next to "Perform bootstrapping". With 100 bootstrap replicates, the bootstrapping analysis might take around 20 minutes; if you would prefer not to wait that long you could set the number of bootstrap replicates to 50 instead. Another way to speed up the analysis is to use all CPUs available on your machine. To do so, simply click the "#CPUs" button in the bottom right of the settings window. This window should then look as shown in the next screenshot; click "OK" if it does.

      PAUP\*

    • While the bootstrapping analysis is running, have a look at the screen output of PAUP*, which should look as shown in the next screenshot.

      PAUP\*

      You'll see that PAUP* has already generated a species tree, and that it reports the number of quartets that are comparable or incomparable with this tree. If all quartets would be comparable with this tree, this would indicate complete absence of incomplete lineage sorting and other processes that might violate the multi-species coalescent model, such as introgression or paralogous sequences in the alignment. However, these processes can not be excluded, and introgression is in fact very likely among the species included in this dataset.

    • Once bootstrapping has completed, PAUP* should print the same species tree once again, this time with bootstrap node support values as shown in the screenshot below.

      PAUP\*

    • Before closing PAUP*, save the species tree with bootstrap support values to a new file named NC_031969.f5.sub4.parts.tre by clicking "Save Trees to File..." in PAUP*'s "Trees" menu. Before you click "Save", first open a settings dialog by clicking the "More Options..." button. This should open another dialog window as shown in the next screenshot. In that window, select "As internal node labels (only for other programs)" as the option for "Bootstrap/jackknife values". By saving the node-support values in this way, they will be readable e.g. for FigTree. Then, click "OK" and save the species tree.

      PAUP\*

  • To alternatively run the second SVDQuartets analysis with the command-line version of PAUP* on Saga, use the following commands:

    • Start PAUP* interactively, this time asking for 6 CPUs with option --cpus-per-task=6:

        srun --ntasks=1 --cpus-per-task=6 --mem-per-cpu=1G --time=00:30:00 --account=nn9458k --pty paup

    • Load the Nexus file NC_031969.f5.sub4.parts.nex using the PAUP* command execute:

        execute NC_031969.f5.sub4.parts.nex

    • Again define the individuals "IZA1" and "IZC5" as the outgroup with PAUP*s outgroup command:

        outgroup 1 2

    • Start the SVDQuartets analysis again with PAUP*'s svdQuartets command

        svdQuartets taxpartition=SPECIES bootstrap=standard nthreads=6

      Due to the invoked bootstrapping, this analysis may now take a few minutes.

    • Save the inferred tree with branch labels:

        saveTrees file='NC_031969.f5.sub4.parts.tre' supportValues=nodeLabels

    • Quit the interactive PAUP* session with quit.

    • Download the tree file NC_031969.f5.sub4.parts.tre from Saga to your own computer using scp.

  • When you open the species tree inferred with SVDQuartets in FigTree, it should appear as shown in the next screenshot.

    PAUP\*

    Question 4: Does the species tree inferred by SVDQuartets appear reliable? (see answer)

    Question 5: Is this species tree concordant with the tree generated based on the multi-species coalescent model in tutorial Bayesian Species-Tree Inference? (see answer)

The species tree reveals that the divergence of the four Neolamprologus species included in tutorial Bayesian Species-Tree Inference (Neolamprologus brichardi, Neolamprologus gracilis, Neolamprologus marunguensis, and Neolamprologus olivaceous) did not represent the most basal divergences within the tribe Lamprologini and also not within the genus Neolamprologus. Instead, several lineages within Neolamprologus (N. walteri, N. chitamwebwai, and N. savoryi) as well as representatives of other genera within Lamprologini (Altolamprologus fasciatus and Telmatochromis vittatus) are all outgroups to the four species used in the other tutorial.





















Answers

  • Question 1: As you can tell from the chromosomal positions of each SNP, which are given in the second column of the table, you'll see that the distance between SNPs is highly variable. The first SNP only appears at position 45158 and distances greater than 10,000 bp between SNPs are not uncommon. However, some SNPs are very close to each other, such as the three SNPs at positions 149906, 149919, and 149925. These SNPs likely do not represent independent markers due to linkage. As SVDQuartets assumes that all markers are independent of each other (conditional on the species tree), it might make sense to exclude two of the three SNPs, and to apply a similar filtering in other such cases.

  • Question 2: You can count the number of SNPs in file NC_031969.f5.sub3.vcf.gz with the following command:

      bcftools view -H NC_031969.f5.sub3.vcf.gz | wc -l

    You should see that 148,573 SNPs remain in the filtered dataset, compared to 430,552 SNPs in file NC_031969.f5.sub2.vcf.gz. Thus, 281,979 SNPs, about two thirds, have been removed.

  • Question 3: The (first half of) the tree should look as in the next screenshot, where indeed the two individuals of each of the 14 species all appear next to each other, indicating monophyly of all species. While non-monophyly of species could result from incomplete lineage sorting, it could also indicate misidentified individuals. In any case, the fact that species appear monophyletic means that there is no reason not to combine individuals per species into one unit and use species as taxa in another analysis with SVDQuartets.

    PAUP\*

  • Question 4: Given that this tree is not based on concatenation, but on the multi-species-coalescent model instead, the bootstrap-support values are not expected to be substantially overestimated. As most support values are close to 100, the tree topology appears to be rather reliable.

  • Question 5: In tutorial Bayesian Species-Tree Inference, a species tree was inferred with StarBeast3 based on sequence data from twelve genes and eleven cichlid species. Of these species, four are also included in the species tree produced here with SVDQuartets, these are Neolamprologus brichardi ("neobri"), Neolamprologus gracilis ("neogra"), Neolamprologus marunguensis ("neomar"), and Neolamprologus olivaceous ("neooli"). The relationship of these four species received moderate support in the species tree resulting from the SVDQuartets analysis: Neolamprologus brichardi ("neobri") and Neolamprologus olivaceous ("neooli") are the most closely related of the four species, with a bootstrap support of 83. The support for the clustering of this pair of species with Neolamprologus gracilis ("neogra") receives a similarly strong bootstrap support of 93. The sister-group relationship of the two species Neolamprologus brichardi ("neobri_spc") and Neolamprologus olivaceous ("neooli_spc") was also recovered with the StarBeast3 analysis (shown in the screenshot below), albeit only with a low Bayesian posterior probability of 0.5. But in contrast to the SVDQuartets species tree, Neolamprologus marunguensis ("neomar_spc") instead of Neolamprologus gracilis ("neogra_spc") appeared as the next-closest species in the species tree estimated by StarBeast3, again with a very low Bayesian posterior probability of 0.38. Thus, while the two topologies are in conflict with each other, the topology inferred with StarBeast3 did not receive strong support and may thus be incorrect. This difference in the degree of support between the two analyses is not surprising, given that we used a dataset of over 60,000 SNPs for SVDQuartets but only 12 sequence alignments with StarBeast3.

    PAUP\*